Library Lessons This Week

This week's Library Lessons will revolve around Sections II and III of The Research Proposal you will be submitting as your final exhibit in this course. If you will recall, last week we reviewed the complete Research Proposal assignment as well as discussed the elements involved in Sections I and II of The Research Proposal. 

As a review, the main elements of your Research Proposal will be:

1. Statement of the Problem
   1. Topic for the study appropriate for your field
   2. The research problem within this topic
   3. A justification for the problem based on past research and practice
   4. Deficiencies or shortcomings of past research or practical knowledge
   5. The importance of addressing the problem for diverse audiences
2. Literature Review (Study-by-Study)
   1. Analysis and synthesis of the primary research that assist in validating and supporting the research problem using a study-by-study approach grouped under broad themes
   2. Summarize major themes and present reasons for a proposed study or the importance of studying a research problem
3. Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses
   1. A concise statement of the purpose of the study based on the research approach chosen (qualitative or quantitative)
   2. The research questions or hypotheses to be addressed as appropriate for the research approach
4. Methods
   1. Statement of research approach and research design
   2. Setting for your study (what type of access do you have?)
   3. Participants and how selected (sampling)
   4. Instrumentation - Provide necessary operational definitions of variables, identify types of data needed,  and instruments or measures used.  Include actual copy of the survey or instrument as well as evidence of reliability and validity
   5. Summary of data collection procedures
   6. Summary of data analysis techniques that will be employed
5. References
6. Appendices

One theme for this week's Library Lessons is analysis and synthesis of research. You likely already have a start on this given you should have identified at least 2 empirical articles as an assignment last week.  Chapter 4 had four main themes - finding literature, abstracting the literature you find, using APA style, and writing the literature review.  Last week we covered the first 3 of these themes while this week will be devoted to the nitty gritty of actually writing the literature review for Section II of your Research Proposal. Once you complete your search and identification for empirical literature and have a handle on the process of analyzing empirical research, you will begin the process of synthesizing your research.  Most of the content new to you this week will be related to the process of synthesizing the research literature. If you purchased the optional Galvan text then it will begin to come in handy as you begin writing your literature review. We will also discuss the formatting and other details of Section I as you finalize it for submission at the end of the week.

This week's Library Lessons will also introduce and discuss Section III of The Research Proposal you will be submitting as your final exhibit in this course. Section III will probably be one of the shortest sections you complete, but that does not always mean it will be the easiest.  Researchers often write, rewrite, and rewrite again their research questions and/or hypotheses as they continue to read and review previous research and begin to think about their research setting, sample, and methods.  Much of the rewriting provides for refinement of the variables that will be the focus of the study. 

Identifying, describing, distinguishing, and measuring variables within research are one of the more difficult things to do for those new to research so do not feel bad if you experience some confusion over which type of variable is which.  This is a common problem among students new to research and research design.  Reading those sections of your text more than once and taking the quiz for Chapter 5 this week will give you some idea of how you are grasping these concepts.  In addition, because some of these concepts are especially difficult to grasp for new researchers, I am providing some additional information and exercises to provide you with as much practice as possible in the lessons this week.

Lesson 1

Analysis and Synthesis of Research

Chapter 10 in Creswell is filled with lots of tidbits on a variety of topics related to reporting and evaluating research.  Some of the content related to writing theses and dissertations will seem irrelevant to you given that this is not a requirement for most Masters degrees at UWF.  If you plan to continue your education it should be an interesting read about things to come.  If not, you may still find the items useful in the context of the requirements for the Research Proposal in this course.  I should note here that you will find differences between some of the suggestions made in your text (for example, the ordering of the items in the body of the paper) and the requirements for your Research Proposal.  Your text is very comprehensive and is written to reach a variety of audiences.  In this course, I want my audience (you) to demonstrate a grasp of the major elements of research and how one might begin to organize their thinking, reading, and writing to communicate their understanding of this process.  Other audiences for this book might actually be designing and conducting complete research studies using this text as a guide.  Different elements of the text will be stressed depending on the audience.  In this Lesson I would like to point out some of the more important elements of the Chapter that should assist you in this course.

Chapter 10

Chapter 10 begins by identifying the structure of quantitative and qualitative articles.  The tables on pages 272-282 might assist you as you continue to work on fine tuning your ability to identify elements of the research process in articles and to abstract and analyze empirical research. As you begin writing your Research Proposal, Creswell's discussion of writing for an audience might also be useful.  Given the table of possible audiences on page 272 of your text, I think the audiences you would likely focus on would be faculty (which would be me - your instructor), you (the researcher), and practicing educators in the field.  While you may not be in the field of education you should translate this audience to mean the professionals in your field. The first 2 audiences here focus you on the idea that you are writing your Proposal as an assignment in this course and will be evaluated based on standards I provide (which are standards we use within the College) and the standards related to the process of research.  The last audience (professionals in your field) should give you the idea that I am not looking for hollow research proposals.  I do not want someone writing a Research Proposal just to complete the assignment for a course.  The research you propose should be "doable" and should have potential results that your colleagues will find interesting and useful to their practice.

The next section in Chapter 10, related to types of research reports and proposals, may seem less relevant given you are not writing a thesis or dissertation. However, if you look at the section on Proposals you should note that the content of the Research Proposal for this course is quite similar to that of a dissertation or thesis proposal.  The major difference between your assignment and the proposals discussed in your text is that we will not be near as thorough or in depth with regards to completing an exhaustive literature review.  An exhaustive literature review is often required in dissertation and thesis proposals and can take a great deal of time to complete - more time than we have in this course.  Therefore, we are focusing in on research that specifically validates and supports your research problem and the research questions you will ask.

Chapter 10 also provides example formats and physical structures for proposals and full reports.  The examples Creswell provides are the most common formats you will see but do note the difference between his example and the physical structure I have given for your Research Proposal in this course. Several things to note within the formats Creswell provides is the inclusion of Front Matter, to include a title page and abstract, and Back Matter, to include references and appendices. You will include these elements within your Research Proposal as required. 

Analysis of Research

The final section of Chapter 10 is actually the focus of this Lesson and a reiteration of Lesson 2 from last week. The standards and checklists Creswell provides in tables should provide you with some additional questions to ask yourself as you continue to identify and analyze quantitative and qualitative empirical research. The separation of checklists based on the research approach might also assist some of you when analyzing a quantitative vs. a qualitative study. Most of the activities for this Lesson are a continuation of the activities you engaged in last week related to identifying and analyzing research. This week you will begin abstracting and analyzing at least one empirical article for review by me so I can be sure that you understand the process and then become self-directed enough to understand the utility of continuing this process as you identify research articles so that you do not become completely overwhelmed when you begin writing Section II of your Research Proposal.

Once you find an empirical, refereed research article related to an identified research problem, the next questions you need to ask yourself are  - How well was this research conducted and is it worthy of being included in a literature review of a particular research topic you may choose?  Will it assist me in better defining and directing my own research? The requirement that your article is in a refereed journal helps you in this aspect because at least you know that other scholars in the field have deemed it good enough for publication (although you may be surprised at what gets published once you analyze it carefully). However, you will still need to read it carefully to insure it fits well with your topic. Once you decide it fits with your topic, your initial job is to analyze the article and write a summary report of your impression.  Analysis of an empirical article involves more than just summarizing the contents in your own words (something everyone is usually guilty of when they first begin writing "research" papers).  Instead, it involves making a critical judgment of the quality of the research conducted and the value and application of the findings. As you read the article you will need to think critically about how well the article addresses the components mentioned above. As you do this there are some guiding questions you can ask yourself as well as jot down notes for later inclusion in your literature review. These guiding questions are:

Research problem/question:

• Is the problem an important/relevant one to your field of study?
• Is the problem researchable?
• Is the problem stated clearly/succinctly?
• Will this study contribute to our understanding of the problem? Will the results have practical or theoretical importance?
• Does the problem communicate the type of research design to be employed? Does it indicate the population studies? Does it indicate the variables in the study?
• Do they provide a good rationale for why such a study is important?

Literature review:

• Does the literature review provide definitions of the key constructs they are investigating?
• Is the review comprehensive? Are all important previous studies included?
• Are primary sources emphasized?
• Is the review up to date given the date of publication of the article?
• Do the authors critically evaluate the studies they review? Are flaws notes and results summarized?
• Does the literature provide support that this study is needed? Does it emphasize studies directly related to the problem?
• Does the review explicitly previous studies to the problem?
• If appropriate, does the review establish a basis for research hypotheses?
• Does the review establish a theoretical framework for the study?
• Is the review well organized?

Research questions/hypotheses:

• Are the questions/hypotheses clearly stated? Do they follow from the literature reviewed?
• Will the answer(s) to the question(s) be applicable to practice in the field?
• Will the answer(s) to the question(s) help us understand the problem better?
• Do the hypotheses state expected relationships or differences?

Research Design and Methods (components 4 and 5 combined):

• Is the sample (subjects) they used appropriate for answering the questions? Are the subjects and population clearly described/defined?
• Is the method of sampling clearly described? IS the sample size appropriate?
• Can you generalize findings to a larger population? Will you be able to apply their findings to similar settings?
• If a survey study, is the return rate given?
• Were the instruments or measures they used clearly identified/explained? Is evidence of reliability and validity clearly stated and adequate? Is the instrument appropriate for the subjects?
• If the instrument is research designed, is the description of the development present?
• Do the authors convey clearly the procedures used for collecting and analyzing the data?
• Are observers and interviewers adequately trained?

Results and Discussion:

• Are the analysis techniques they used (whether quantitative or qualitative) clearly explained?
• Is there an appropriate descriptive statistical summary?
• Are appropriate statistical tests used?
• Do the findings they report seem plausible given the data they analyzed? Do they make sense?
• Do the conclusions they make follow logically from the data analysis findings?
• Do the conclusions they make match the questions they posed at the beginning of the article?
• Do the authors report limitations to their study?
• Do the authors provide important implications for practice?
• Do the authors make suggestions for future research in this topic?

These components and their guiding questions will be the areas on which you will concentrate when first reading empirical research articles.  You will want to summarize for yourself each of the components as stated in your article (i.e. write an abstract) as well as provide a critical judgment of how well they communicated and conducted their research using the guiding questions. While this may seem like a tedious task to complete on every article, it is often a necessary step for those new to writing literature reviews in the context of completing a research proposal and it will assist you a great deal on your organization.

Synthesis of Research

Now that we have discussed Chapter 10, let's take a look back at part of Chapter 4 from last week.  The section of Chapter 4 that specifically relates to synthesizing empirical research begins in the section titled "Writing Strategies" beginning on page 113. While much of the discussion relates to details of completing a literature review in general, the culmination of any literature is some sort of synthesis of what was actually reviewed.  Therefore, a synthesis cannot really be accomplished until identification and analysis of the literature has been completed.

Creswell discusses the extent of literature reviews for various types of reports and proposals.  He suggests that a literature review for a research proposal is usually between 10 and 30 pages.  This is probably a good estimate of how long your Section II will be.  The length of literature reviews can depend on the amount of literature available on your topic, the complexity of the problem you plan to study, and the depth in which you write your analyses. It might also depend on the type of review you write. 

Creswell discusses two types of reviews, the thematic review and the study-by-study review.  As is noted in the outline of your Research Proposal, you will be conducting a study-by-study review of the literature.  While many of you may think a thematic review of the literature would be easier because it seems to contain less detailed information.  A well written thematic review is often the product of just as much labor as a study-by-study review. In order to write a thematic review one must have a keen grasp on all of the literature on hand so themes can be identified and discussed and literature can be grouped according to commonalities and other possible criteria. A study-by-study review of the literature is a good approach to use for those new to analysis and synthesis of empirical research.  This type of review requires you to abstract, analyze, and critique individual studies, group them together according to themes or subtopics, link them through transitional sentences, and then synthesize each grouping. 

The common element of either type of review is the "concluding statement of the review." Creswell describes this element much like I would describe a synthesis of the literature. He provides some guidelines and suggestions for how such a synthesis should be written, but I would like to provide you with a bit more detail here.

A synthesis brings together the major similarities and differences and strengths and weaknesses across all the articles you analyzed (in a particular section or overall).  It highlights the most interesting things, the most disappointing things, the most curious things you may have found.  From there, our synthesis here asks you to take the next step and present your own ideas and opinions about what you read and what research still needs to be done.

In order to write a good synthesis of research, you must have first analyzed the research well enough to be able to identify the similarities, differences, strengths, weaknesses, etc. In your case, you will have actually written complete abstracts and analyses prior to synthesizing given you are conducting a study-by-study review of the literature.  The study-by-study review process will serve you well because, for many, jumping straight into synthesis is an almost impossible task because you do not have enough experience reading and analyzing research to do so. As you progress in your ability to read and analyze research you may find you do not need to write out complete analyses first.  As you complete this final part of Section II of your Research Proposal I hope you will find that you have developed a useful (and in my mind, critical) skill that will serve you well through your graduate studies and into your career, because you will have developed the ability to be a wise consumer and communicator of research. 

There are a variety of approaches and questions one can use to guide you in synthesizing the research literature on a given topic and writing your concluding statements in a literature review.  You might synthesize each group of studies within a particular subtopic or you may wait until you have reviewed all studies prior to providing a more in-depth synthesis.

Some questions that should guide your synthesis of literature grouped together within subtopics are:

What were some of the similarities across the research you analyzed? Guiding questions are:

• Did they use similar research methodologies, samples, or measures?
• Did they have similar research questions?
• Did they have similar findings/results?
• Did they have similar suggestions for future research?

What were some of the differences across the research you analyzed? Guiding questions are:

• Did they use different research methodologies, samples, or measures?
• Did they have different research questions?
• Did they have conflicting findings/results?
• Did they have varying suggestions for future research?

Some questions that should guide your synthesis of the literature as a whole and assist you in writing your concluding statement of the review are:

What contributions have these articles made for the topic as a whole? Guiding questions are:

• What parts of the research problem have been addressed in these studies? Have they adequately been addressed?
• How has this research informed and possibly changed practice?

What suggestions do YOU have for future research on this problem? Guiding questions are:

• In what ways is the current literature deficient? Are there questions about this topic that still need to be answered?
• What type of research should be conducted to fill gaps in the current literature? Why?

As Creswell notes, providing synthesis by answering some of the questions above should perfectly lead the reader into expectations about what research you will propose in the following section. As we have discussed previously, it is your job to use the research literature to justify the research you will propose. A well written literature review should leave no question about what has already been done on your topic and that your study is needed and will fill a crucial gap in current research and inform practice in the field.

The final reminder I want to mention in this section is that you should also continue the process of creating your literature map.  As you find new articles you should depict how it will fit into your literature review.  If you do this as you find and analyze your articles it will be easier for you to identify gaps that exist and that you should target for further searching.  A complete literature map will be due with your rough draft of Section II.

Galvan Text

If you purchased the Galvan text then you should read the first 3 chapters this week.  These are short chapters setting the stage for you to get ready to get to the business of analysis and synthesis of the literature.  The first chapter provides an excellent discussion of the sources you should be reviewing for your literature review (primary sources) as well as problems you are likely to find with any empirical research article. As his is, your focus should be on empirical research reports (between 8 and 10) for your literature review although you will also likely use additional sources, such as theoretical articles and literature review articles, within your proposal also. Anecdotal reports should be used sparingly. These chapters also help you to focus on the type of review you are writing and also the initial steps for identifying a topic and finding empirical research reports.  These steps are a must before you can even begin to get into analysis and synthesis. You have already partially accomplished these tasks given you should have identified 2 empirical articles last week and will find 2 more this week. Next week we will read further into the Galvan text as you finish Section I and start focusing on writing Section II of your proposal.

Lesson Links

These same links were provided in last week's lesson as you began your search for empirical articles. 

• The UWF Library has a variety of databases that are available for students. Some of the resources have online full-text articles that you can use. Read about the services available for Distance Learners.
  • Library Databases
  • Online Journals
  • Accessing Information Off Campus
  • UWF ELi: Electronic Library Research Guides
• Educational Journal Links
• National FORUM Journals Online
• ERIC Database
• AERA journals
• Psychcrawler
• Psych Web
• Links to Psychological Journals
• Psychology Journals (and a plethora of other resource links!)

From the previous lesson in week 2 (just in case you need them):

• Download the Guiding Questions document in Word or rtf format. 

• Read the article Teachers' Evaluative Comments and Pupil Perception of Control and then download and review this Article Critique in Word or rtf format.

Lesson Activities

• Read the directions for the Chapter Ten quiz, and complete the quiz in elearning. You will have 60 minutes to complete this quiz. 
• Identify at least 2 more empirical research articles from refereed journals that are on the same topic as the one you identified last week.  Via email, submit the complete reference in APA format (use your manual) for these 2 articles. Email these 2 references as an attachment (to preserve APA formatting) to me.
• NOTE: You have 2 weeks to complete the following assignment
  Choose 1 of the empirical articles you identified last week or this week and complete the following tasks:
  • Write a 350 word abstract using the process and examples Creswell provided - this must be submitted in APA style - review Lesson 3 last week for assistance!
  • Write a critique in scholarly, paragraph format using the guiding questions above as your guide being sure to address each area as it relates to your article.
  • Write an additional paragraph on how this study will assist you in validating and supporting your research problem (does it provide justification? Identify deficiencies or shortcomings? Support a major theme?).
  • Provide the complete reference in APA style
  • Review Lesson 3 from last week related to APA style and apply appropriate style after you have completed your write up or as you are writing it.
  • Send a single document with all of the above items complete to your instructor as an attachment. To view a sample of this assignment from a previous student to use as a model click here.
• Continue to identify additional empirical research articles from refereed journals that are on your research topic.  If you continue to want confirmation that the articles you find are empirical and refereed, submit the complete reference in APA format (use your book) to your instructor. Include the url of the article in APA format if you found it online. Your goal should be to find a minimum of 8-10 empirical articles for inclusion in your literature review.
• Continue constructing your own literature map using your key terms and the research you locate.  Maps such as those provided in your text can be created using Microsoft Word or another program such as Inspiration (a software tool specifically designed for concept mapping and brainstorming etc.).  If you would like to download a free trial and experiment with Inspiration then check out their home page. A complete literature map will be due with Section II of your proposal.

Lesson 2

Section III of your Research Proposal is all about conveying to the reader the direction your research will take.  Once you have provided an overview of the research problem you are interested in and summarized and critiqued the previous research on this problem, there are probably many directions your research could take.  For example, if I am interested in the self-regulation of students in online courses, there are many directions my research could take.  I could be most interested in identifying the most frequently used self-regulation strategies among online students OR identifying which strategies students think most contribute to their success OR correlating scores of students on a self-regulation survey with achievement in an online course OR investigating whether self-regulation is a significant predictor of achievement when combined with other possible variables, such as prior achievement, motivation, attitude, etc.  All of these directions could be valid and provide useful information for online students and instructors. 

Section III of your Proposal should convey specifically in which direction your research will go by providing a purpose statement, research questions, research hypotheses, and research objectives as appropriate for your particular study. Each of these four forms of communicating to others the direction of your research differ in their intent.  Creswell provides a handy table for review on page 116 of your text. Creswell does a good job of explaining how each of these four forms are written and how they differ between quantitative and qualitative research approaches.  Before you begin writing Section III you should definitely have made a decision about the research approach (quantitative or qualitative) you will use because this will determine the items you will include in this section of your proposal.

After an overview of the forms for conveying the direction of your research, Creswell provides separate discussions of how you might write Section III for a quantitative versus a qualitative approach to research.  Do not make the mistake of only reading the section that goes with the type of approach you intend to propose.  It is important for you to read and understand the similarities and differences among these for the quiz, final exam, and for future use when you propose a study that uses the opposite approach.  Upon initial reading most will consider that writing Section III will be more difficult when using a quantitative approach rather than a qualitative approach.  This is often true because of new researchers' difficulty with understanding the types and uses of variables and the scales of measurement required for particular statistical analyses (something I hope to assist you with in the following lesson this week and future lessons).  However, clear and concise research questions that communicate to the reader exactly what data you intend to gather to answer your questions related to a central phenomenon is not always easy either.

To begin his section on purpose statements, questions, and hypotheses for quantitative research, Creswell notes the importance of understanding the measurement and role of variables.  These are often confusing topics for many.  I am not going to go into it here because Lesson 3 is devoted entirely to these 2 topics.  It may be a good idea to complete those lessons and associated activities prior to completing the Chapter 5 quiz or continuing to read here.  Once you have a grasp of these concepts then I think you will find his guidelines and samples for purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that begin on page 133 of great use as you work on Section III. A final note about this section is in relation to writing hypotheses. Creswell discusses writing null hypotheses and directional or nondirectional alternative hypotheses.  For Section III, you will provide both a null and an alternative hypothesis.  It will be your decision, based on your prediction, to make the alternative hypothesis directional or nondirectional.

The final section of Chapter 5 discusses purpose statements and research questions for qualitative research. Within this context, you must first identify your central phenomenon and clearly communicate the intent of your study. Writing research questions includes writing a central question as well as posing subquestions.  For Section III, you will provide a purpose statement as well as a central question and several subquestions.  Please make special note of how Creswell distinguishes between writing the central question and subquestions from writing interview questions you might ask your participants.  Be sure you are writing subquestions and not interview questions.

Lesson Activities

• Complete the Chapter Five Quiz for Creswell. You will have 90 minutes for this quiz.  You may go directly into the elearning system or read the directions first.
• Open and read this short explanation of hypotheses and research questions and a focus on the null hypothesis from Patten (1997).  You may download it in Word or RTF format. There are short exercises with answers provided to check your comprehension. We will talk more about some of these in future weeks so you may choose to wait until then to complete this.

Lesson 3

In Chapter 5, Creswell distinguishes between only 2 levels of measurement for variables - categorical and continuous.  In Chapter 6 next week, on pages 175-176, Creswell expands on this to identify the four scales (or levels) at which we measure variables in quantitative research.  It may be useful to read those few pages now, but I am also providing additional discussion here from other references (Patten, 1997; Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996) and my own limited brain power.

Open and read this short 2 page explanation of the four scales of measurement from Patten (1997).  You may download it in Word or RTF format. There is a short exercise with answers provided to check your comprehension.

Further information to note on each scale of measurement is provided by Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1996) and summarized below:

Nominal:
Researchers often assign numbers to categories used at the nominal level.  These are arbitrarily assigned as labels to identify the categories,  For example, in the variable of "gender" there are two categories, "male" and "female." Researchers will often assign the number 1 to all males and the number 2 to all females.  Similarly, for the variable "marital status" there are often 3 categories, "married," "divorced," and "single." A researcher might assign the number 1 to "single," the number 2 to "married," and the number 3 to "divorced." Even though you may have assigned a quantitative representation (number) to these qualitative categories, there is no empirical relationship between the numbers used in the nominal scale that actually corresponds to the actual mathematical relationship between the numbers used.  The numbers are simply used to identify members of a given category. No arithmetical procedures such as addition, subtraction, multiplication or division can be used with these numbers.  The only statistical procedures that may be used are those based on mere counting, such as reporting the number in each category (e.g., there were 24 males and 36 females participating in this study) or expressing the numbers as percentages of the total number of subjects (e.g., 40% of the participants were male and 60% were female).

Ordinal:
The essential requirement for measurement at the ordinal level is that the ranking of objects or individuals with respect to how much or how little of an attribute they possess is that if rank a is greater than rank b, and rank b is greater than rank c, then rank a must also be greater than rank c.  Numbers assigned are used to indicate the order of the observation (who has more or less of an attribute) and nothing more. For example, in a mile fun run in which the runners are not timed but are only ranked according to the order in which they crossed the finish line, we only know who came in first, second, third, etc.  We have no way of knowing how much faster one runner was than another.  The time difference between the 1st and 2nd runner is not necessarily the same time difference between the 2nd and 3rd runner. The statistics appropriate for an ordinal scale are limited as they are for nominal scales.  Since the interval between the categories (ranks) is unknown, you cannot use procedures that assume equal intervals - addition, subtraction, etc.

Interval:
Interval scales of measurement order objects or people according to the amount of an attribute they represent but they ALSO establish equal intervals between the units of measure. Numbers on an interval scale may be manipulated by addition and subtraction but not by multiplication or division because there is no absolute zero. For example, temperature as measured in Fahrenheit is an interval scale.  The difference between 40 and 50 degrees is the same as the difference between 60 and 70 degrees.  However, you cannot say that 80 degrees is twice as hot as 40 degrees because there is no true zero - there is no such thing as no temperature. Any statistical procedures based on adding may be used with interval level data along with any procedures appropriate for lower level data (nominal and ordinal)

It is important to point out that it has become common practice to treat many educational variables such as classroom tests and grades as if they were interval data, even when the assumption of equal intervals cannot be justified. It would be difficult to argue that the difference in achievement between an F = 0 and D = 1 (on a GPA) represents the same difference in achievement between C = 2 and B = 3. This point brings out a specific point of disagreement that I have with Creswell in his description of interval scale measurement in Chapter 6. 

The main example he uses as an interval scale of measurement is the popular Likert scale in which participants are asked to note their level of agreement ("strongly agree", "somewhat agree", "somewhat disagree", "strongly disagree") to statements.  He states that this scale has "theoretically equal intervals" among responses and is well-tested.  I could point to plenty of other research that shows that this is not true.  Can anyone say that the difference between them marking "strongly disagree" and "somewhat disagree" is the same difference between them marking "somewhat disagree" to "somewhat agree"? To make matters worse, many questionnaires add an option for "neutral" to the scale.  What does neutral represent?  It is not a true zero.  Is it closer to agree or disagree?

Many measurement experts contest the idea of treating data obtained from such scales as interval.  They do not believe you can can manipulate scores obtained from this type of measure as you would other true interval scales such as temperature above. Therefore, because this type of data lies somewhere between ordinal and interval it should be treated as ordinal data.  There are some statistical procedures that can be conducted to test whether or not a particular scale (such as the Likert scale) is indeed interval. Additionally, there are statistical procedures one can use to translate such borderline data into interval data. These procedures are beyond the scope of this course but it is good to know that they exist.

Ratio:
Only a few variables of interest in education and other social sciences are ratio in nature. With a ratio scale it is possible to multiply or divide values by a certain number without changing the properties of the scale.  For example, you can multiply 6 feet by 12 to change the unit of measurement from feet to inches, but it does not change the actual length of what was measured. You can say that someone that a person that weighs 50 pounds weighs twice as much as a person who weighs 25 pounds. All types of statistical procedures are appropriate for ratio scale data.

Under Creswell's 2 types of variable scores - categorical and continuous - nominal and ordinal data fall under categorical and interval and ratio data fall under continuous.

Variables in Research

In Chapter 5 Creswell gives a very good and in-depth explanation of a variety of variables you are likely to encounter in your role as researcher (or at least in your role as consumer of research and writer of a research proposal).  I am sure at times you found it overwhelming to read about all the different types of variables as well as all the possible names you might hear or read for a single type of variable. I am only going to emphasize a few points here and then direct you to download and read a few additional explanations.  These explanations focus on just an independent and dependent variable rather than the many that Creswell covers so it may seem less overwhelming.

An important thing that Creswell does in his text is he clearly tells you that there is a difference between a construct and a variable.  A construct is more abstract while the variable is measured or observed.  The idea of a variable being measured or observed is an EXTREMELY IMPORTANT one.  Too often new researchers think of great ideas for research but then come to find that there is really no existing valid and reliable way to measure or observe the construct of interest. This may lead them to either abandon the idea or to back up and conduct a study in which they must create a valid and reliable way of measuring or observing a construct.  For your Research Proposal it will serve you better (read this as - cause you less stress) if you choose to include variables in your study in which valid and reliable methods for measuring them already exist.  For example, there are an ample number of valid and reliable measures of intelligence that exist.

One of the best ways to know what measures exist for certain variables of interest is by reading empirical research that includes these variables. The articles that you find for your literature review should provide you with possibilities for how to measure your own variables if the research you find is close enough to the topic in which you are interested. We will discuss much more about measurement of constructs and establishing validity and reliability of measures in the next few weeks. As you begin to think about your research questions and identifying your variables, however, it might behoove you to ask yourself how you are going to propose that you will measure the variables you mention.  If you think measuring a variable will be an extremely difficult task then you might consider another variable of interest. Creswell provides you with some excellent figures and tables to supplement the text explanations that he provides on the different types of independent variables and intervening variables.

Creswell also provides an excellent explanation of how theories are used to support research and to determine variables that are relevant for study.  I have consciously chosen not to require the additional burden of providing a theoretical framework/rationale/base for your study although some of you may naturally do this.  Making sure one identifies a theoretical base for a research study is a common practice when writing theses and dissertations. It requires researchers to be more sophisticated and rely less on their hunches from their own personal (and often biased) experiences. However, given that some of you may not have had courses in psychological or social foundations in which many theories are discussed, requiring a theoretical framework would have placed an additional burden on you.  Do not let this stop you from recognizing the importance of this.  Often, working from a theoretical framework makes your study easier to plan.  As Creswell notes, a theory explains or predicts the relationship between independent and dependent variables.  This allows you to proceed with some confidence that your study is not in vain.  It also provides you with guidance on writing hypotheses and choosing measures.  I would think that several of the empirical articles you find will mention the theoretical framework or rationale used for the study. If you would like an extra challenge (and a few attaboys or attagirls) then feel free to try to add this as part of your Section III.

A final note from the text is Creswell's discussion of proving cause and effect.  In our everyday lives we all like to attribute cause and effect to things that happen regardless of whether such an assertion is valid.  In research, this is a big no-no unless you set up your study to specifically study cause and effect.  Without careful consideration of the design of your study you will likely not be able to establish causation.  If this is your intention then you need to think carefully about the design you will choose for your study.  We will discuss different designs in future weeks.

Lesson Activities

• Read pages 175-176 in Chapter 6 of Creswell
• Open and read this short 2 page explanation of the four scales of measurement from Patten (1997).  You may download it in Word or RTF format. There is a short exercise with answers provided to check your comprehension.
• Open and read these short explanations of variables in non-experimental and experimental research from Patten (1997).  You may download it in Word or RTF format. There are short exercises with answers provided to check your comprehension.
• For your own assessment of your comprehension of variables, complete the "think aloud" exercise on page 130 using one of the empirical articles you have found for your literature review.  If you have problems or need clarification, email your instructor.
• NOTE: There is nothing to turn in here. This is for you to check your comprehension and ask questions as needed on areas where you feel you may need further clarification.

Section I of Your Research Proposal

As you tackle the task of completing a draft of Section I this week, I want to review what should be included in the document you turn in as well as introduce a few new things related to scholarly writing and APA style that you should focus on as well.

The document you turn in should contain the following elements:

Front Matter

Title page

Body of the Paper

Introduction

Statement of the Problem

• Topic for the study appropriate for your field
• The research problem within this topic
• A justification for the problem based on past research and practice
• Deficiencies or shortcomings of past research or practical knowledge
• The importance of addressing the problem for diverse audiences

Back Matter

References

As you begin writing your document, you should review Chapter 5 of your APA Manual which outlines the details of preparing manuscripts for submission.  A careful read and constant reference to this will be useful throughout this course.  Beginning on page 284, the manual provides specific guidelines with regards to paper size, font type and size, double spacing, and margins. It then provides you with the order of manuscript pages.  At this point in your writing you will not have every one of these elements. This chapter also includes guidelines for indenting paragraphs, spacing and punctuation, seriation, and quotations.

The first APA element to note in your document is the title page.  For detailed information on the elements of your title page refer to pages 296 - 298 of your APA Manual.  For a sample of how one might look refer to the sample document provided on pages 306 - 320.  While the process seems self explanatory, a few things to remember are:

• Do not put the course number or other superfluous information on the title page other than what is required by APA.
• For information regarding page header and page numbering refer to page 288.

Note that you will not yet have an abstract to include in this document.  Therefore your text (the body of your paper) will actually begin on page 2.  Do not forget to type the title of your paper at the top of the page that begins the body of your text.

Once the body of your paper is complete then do not forget to begin your reference list on a separate page.  Make sure that all references are in APA format.  Also, remember that you cannot include references in the list unless you have cited them in your text.

In addition to the above details, you should pay careful attention to your writing style as you begin writing your Proposal.  The first 2 chapters of your APA Manual (pages 3 - 76) deserve a thorough read this week.  Chapter 1 provides you with an excellent overview related to the content and organization of a manuscript while Chapter 2 focuses you on your writing style. Creswell also addresses some specific points related to scholarly writing in Chapter 10. My suggestion is to read these before you write and then read them again after you have completed writing and see how well you have applied the principles or if you can catch your own errors.

A final suggestion for you this week is to proofread, proofread, proofread.  It would also be very beneficial to have someone else proofread your paper prior to turning it in.  Although this is a draft of Section I, please do not think of me as your proofreader - I will provide feedback on content but will also expect correct grammar and punctuation.  Remember that this draft is worth points toward your final grade and points will be docked for poor grammar, spelling, and other mechanics.  My hope is that I provide more guidance with regards to the actual content of your document and not the mechanics of your writing so that the final submission of your Research Proposal will be of highest quality.  If I find myself becoming your own personal proofreader I will send it back for resubmission prior to giving you your grade. This will delay the feedback process and impede your progress. Don't let this happen to you.

Lesson Activities

• Write Section I of your research proposal and turn it in to your instructor. Be sure your document includes the elements listed above and follows APA style.

• Download and review the evaluation rubric I will use when providing you feedback and also when giving you your final grade on Section I.

• It might be a good idea to review the sample proposals in the exhibition hall as you embark on your first draft.

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• Check the Course FAQ page to see if your question has already been answered.
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• Email the Head Librarian (Dr. Curda)*.
• Email the Assistant Librarian (Melissa)*.
• Check with the other library patrons.

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